You may have read about them in history books, but nobody could be sure of what these ancient historical figures looked like in real life—until now, that is. Thanks to CGI, facial reconstruction, forensic anthropologists and 3-D printing, our favorite historical figures can finally come back to life.
Maximilien Robespierre
From 1792 to 1794, Maximilien Robespierre briefly reigned as the French head of state. His time in office was known as "The Reign of Terror," a period distinctive for its extreme brutality and religious persecution. Similarly to King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette, countless citizens were executed via guillotine.
Death Mask
On his last day in office, he was shot in the jaw and later arrested. The next day, Robespierre met the same fate as those he had sent to the guillotine, along with 21 of his most loyal supporters. In 2013, two forensic pathologists used Robspierre's death mask—a la Robespierre's decapitated head—to determine what he actually looked like.
Queen Elizabeth I
Queen Elizabeth I reigned over England from 1559 to 1603. Given both the state of affairs and her early life, it's impressive that Elizabeth became queen at all. Her father plowed through six different wives in order to produce a male heir; she was only afforded the position after her brother and sister died. She never married, earning the title of "The Virgin Queen."
Animatronic Face
Using scans and 3D printing, Mat Collishaw was able to create an animatronic version of Queen Elizabeth I's face. It even blinks! The Armada portrait, seen above, served as the inspiration for her face. The original portrait currently resides in the Queen's House in Greenwich, London.
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was largely responsible for the expansion of the Roman empire. Caesar's relentless pursuit of victory afforded him sole control over the empire, but we all know how it ended: a fatal Senate floor stabbing on the Ides of March in 44 B.C.
Accurate Bust
In late 2018, an anthropologist scanned the above bust, which was created a few years before Caesar's death, along with a second bust, resulting in the product above. If you visit the Dutch National Museum of Antiquities in the Netherlands, you can still see it today.
King Tut
King Tutankhamun was the pharaoh of Egypt from 1334 to 1324 B.C. If his tomb hadn't been discovered in 1922, nobody would have known his name. King Tut succeeded his father's throne at the age of 9 and only ruled for ten years; he died at the age of 19 from malaria, a leg fracture, and congenital deformities as a result of inbreeding. So much for the belief that a "pure bloodline" would benefit the Egyptian royal family...
Enfeebled Leader
Over 2,000 CT and digital scans, as well as a lengthy analysis of King Tut's genetics, revealed that he was a frail teenager with a protruding overbite, clubfoot, and misshapen hips. King Tut was the only pharaoh ever depicted sitting while performing tasks such as archery.
Emperor Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar ruled as emperor of Rome between 54 and 68 A.D. Nero was regarded as a murderous psychopath who deluded himself into believing that he was a gifted artist. He was notoriously despised by the empire over which he presided.
Great Fire of Rome
In 64 A.D., a fire began at the Circus Maximus. While Rome burned for three days straight, Nero was rumored to have sung a Greek epic from the roof of his palace. He was responsible for the death of many enemies—most of whom were Christians. Before he could be executed, he took his own life, declaring: "What an artist dies in me!"
Queen Nefertiti
Plenty of evidence suggests Queen Nefertiti reigned independently after King Tut's death; unlike other queens, Nefertiti was depicted powerfully in Egyptian artistry. The above bust was discovered by a German archeologist in 1913. It depicted a slender-necked woman with delicate features, but the real truth laid beneath the bust...
Second Skin
Under the painted stucco of the first bust was a hidden gem, perhaps never meant to be revealed. Sculptor Thutmose had created a second bust of Nefertiti made of limestone. A CT scan showed that while her face was still beautiful, she had wrinkled cheeks and a bump on her nose. Nefertiti gave birth to six children in her time, one of whom became the mother of her grandson, King Tut.
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was considered the most successful playwright in history. He afforded us terms like "night owl" and "full circle." This image, half-engraved and half-etched, is believed to be the most widely-recognized picture of Shakespeare, having been created in 1859 by Scottish artist James Faed. Shakespeare can be seen here surrounded by his works, including at least 37 different plays.
The Real Shakespeare
Shakespeare transformed the English language and established the Globe Theater—impressive feats for the son of an English farmer. In 2010, Dr. Caroline WIlkinson used a computer to scan the interior of Shakespeare's death mask, which she then used to create a 3D image of what he would have looked like on the day of his death, April 23, 1616.
Robert the Bruce
Robert the Bruce, also known as Robert I, took the throne in 1306. At the time, King Edward I had declared Scotland part of England proper rather than its own kingdom. In 1314, Bruce defeated an English army at Bannockburn, successfully preserving Scotland's autonomy.
The Face of Scottish Independence
In late 2016, historians from the University of Glasgow worked with Face Lab specialists at the University of Liverpool to render an image of what he might have looked like. The project took two years to complete, and they had to guess the color of his eyes. Although his skin appears normal in this rendering, there is some evidence that Bruce was suffering from leprosy when he died in 1329.
Iron Age Druid Woman
Druids were a mysterious class of ancient Celtic culture, largely associated with magical rituals and potion-making. The skull belonging to "Hilda," a wealthy woman who lived in Stornoway over 2,000 years ago, was discovered on the Isle of Lewis in 1833. Hilda's skull was one of six "Druids of the Hebrides" skulls found at the time.
Toothless Hilda
According to Karen Fleming, a Forensic Art student at the University of Dundee, it was "clear from the skull she was toothless before she died," which wasn't so surprising, given her diet. Hilda was likely a woman of high status in ancient society; average female life expectancy was only 31 at the time, but Hilda's privileged background may have allowed her to live much longer.
Cleopatra
Cleopatra was one of the most famous rulers in history. She was a highly intelligent, multilingual co-regent who reigned over the Kingdom of Egypt for 30 years. Cleopatra was known as a woman of great beauty; although busts often depicted her as something of a supermodel, one specific bust portrayed a more realistic version of the Ptolemaic ruler.
Her True Appearance
This marble bust of Cleopatra was created between 40 and 30 B.C. It is thought to be her most accurate recreation because artwork at the time presented her with similar features and the same "melon hairstyle." This was the typical hairstyle of Ptolemaic queens.
Jesus Christ
Jesus Christ of Nazareth was born around 4 B.C. and passed away at some point between 30 and 33 A.D. Christ has been depicted as a figure in Western art more often than any other figure in history. The painting above was created long after his death; a white man with light hair would liekly not have come from the Persian area of the Roman Empire. Jesus' actual appearance has always been the subject of controversy.
Shroud of Turin
In 1352, a 14-foot linen cloth was discovered with the body of Jesus Christ depicted on it. The Shroud also had bloodstains in accordance with Jesus' wounds from the scripture. In 2001, the image above was created by forensic anthropologist Richard Neave, who was attempting to demonstrate how a man of Jesus Christ's age, time, and place may have looked.
George Washington
The leader of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War later served as the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Washington stepped down from office at the height of his popularity in order to maintain the United States' democracy. Washington was heralded as the leader who helped birth a nation—but what did he really look like?
The First President
Researchers at the Rutgers New Jersey Medical School in Newark compiled their findings to create this computer-generator image of the first president of the United States. This rendering did not include Washington's dentures, of which he had four separate sets during his lifetime. Nevertheless, it appears startlingly real.
Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary Stuart, otherwise known as Mary, Queen of Scots, was declared Queen of Scotland only six days after she was born. Mary was cousins with Queen Elizabeth I, and at first, the two got along famously—but after Mary was caught in midst of a plot to overthrow Elizabeth, she spent 19 years in prison and was stripped of her throne.
Losing Her Head
Later, Mary tried to overthrow Elizabeth once again, which cost her a trip to the guillotine. Caroline Wilkinson of Dundee University used a combination of biographical information and existing artwork to create this 3D rendering of her face. Interestingly, although Mary was supposed to be between 19 and 26 in the above image, no referential portraits of her existed at that age.
Richard III
Richard III was the last king of the 330-year Plantagenet dynasty. He was kind of England from 1483 to 1485; he was portrayed as a tyrannical dictator in the titular Shakespeare play. At the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1495, Richard led a cavalry charge straight into Henry Tudor's army and witnessed the total annihilation of his men before he himself met the same fate. "A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!" wrote Shakespeare.
Under the Parking Lot
In 2012, researchers found the body of Richard III beneath a parking lot. No paintings of Richard existed before his death, so the team at Dundee University used historical records, postmortem portraits, and the king's newly-discovered skull to piece together this sculpture.
Meritamun
The only reason anyone knows about Meritamun is that researchers at the University of Melbourne discovered her skull in their archives. How Meritamun's skull traveled from Egypt to Australia remains a mystery, but it was determined that she was once a woman of nobility from over 3,000 years ago.
Title
Researchers spent over 140 hours performing CT scans on Meritamun's skull, and a 3D printer was used to produce the figure in this photo. Although Meritamun's cause of death remains unknown, it is suspected that the 18- to 25-year-old suffered from anemia, causing her to become weak and lethargic before she passed away. Researchers also found tooth decay, indicating that Meritamun may have had a sweet tooth.
Lord of Sipan
The Lord of Sipan was the first in a series of preserved bodies that became known as the Moche Mummies. Originally found in Peru, the 1987 discovery was considered one of the most significant of the twentieth century. Like King Tut, the Lord of Sipan was buried with a wealth of riches.
Reconstruction
The excavation process splintered the 2,000-year-old skull into 96 separate pieces. Fortunately, using a process called photogrammetry, the Brazilian Team of Forensic Anthropology and Forensic Odontology was able to recreate the Lord of Sipan's skull.
Saint Anthony
If you can't find your keys, say a prayer to Saint Anthony, the saint of lost things. Saint Anthony was known for his uncanny ability to heal the sick, as well as his notable oration during sermons. Deeply beloved by the Catholic church, he was the second-fastest person to ever have been canonized as a saint. It is rumored that the bells rang on their own when he died in 1231 while children wept on the streets.
Doctor of the Church
When his body was exhumed 30 years later, all that remained intact were his bottom jawbone and tongue, which are still on display today. In 2013, theologians and researchers at The University of St. Anthony of Padua’s Anthropology Museum worked with a 3D designer from the University of Sao Paolo to reconstruct Saint Anthony's face. In 1946, Pope Pius XII proclaimed him "Doctor of the Church."
King Henry IV
King Henry IV was often referred to as "Good King Henry" or "Henry the Great." Only two months after becoming King of Navarre, he narrowly avoided death during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. In fact, the "Good King" survived twelve assassination attempts—sadly, the thirteenth did him in.
Religious Tolerance
Although somewhat unpopular at the time, "Good King Henry" ended up becoming France's most beloved monarch. Unfortunately, he was stabbed by fanatical Catholic François Ravaillac in 1610. The same team that rendered Maximilien Robespierre brought Henry IV to life.
Johann Sebastian Bach
Born in 1685 in Germany, Johann Sebastian Bach came from musical pedigree. He was known as a prodigy with an organ, and mostly composed his music for church. In 1721, Bach produced a six-part concerto, which would have taken most composers dozens of concertos to achieve.
The Face of Music
Bach died in 1750 and was buried in an unmarked grave. 150 years later, the church at which he was buried was in need of repair, and theologians seized the opportunity to exhume the grave in which they believed he was buried. Dundee University's Caroline Wilkinson used a cast of what is believed to be Bach's skull to create the image you see above.
Simon Bolivar
Simon Bolivar began his fight against the Spanish empire in the early 1800s. After securing independence, he became the president of Gran Colombia, which included much of present-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecaudor, and northern Peru. Yers later, the Republic of Bolivia was established, and Simon Bolivar became one of few people to have a country named in his honor.
3D Rendering
It was widely believed that Bolivar died from tuberculosis at the age of 47, but former Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez theorized that Bolivar had been poisoned as an act of revenge for his fight against the Spanish empire. The 3D rendering was unveiled in Caracas at the Miraflores presidential palace on the 299th anniversary of Bolivar's birth.
Copernicus
Nicolas Copernicus spent years mapping the sky before he came to the conclusion that the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the solar system. His theory put him at odds with the Bible, but Copernicus rejected the interpretation that Earth was at the center of the universe. His major work, "Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs," was published in 1543—the same year he died. This didn't leave much time for the church to admonish his actions.
Finally Unearthed
During his lifetime, Copernicus remained largely unknown, only gaining fame and notoriety after his death. His final resting place was undetermined until 2005 when a team of researchers found his remains in a Polish Roman Catholic Cathedral. In 2008, a 600-year-old hair was used to match his DNA to the skeleton, proving that it really was Copernicus.
Lady of Cao
It took 15 years to unearth a Peruvian mummy that was later dubbed "Lady of Cao." She had been buried in a bundle of cloth. Researchers were able to determine that the woman's remains were dated back to the year 400. Because of the ornate manner in which she was wrapped, as well as the fact that women were rarely embalmed like this, she was believed to have been an aristocrat.
Careful Conditions
Although the Lady of Cao is now on display, she is kept in a climate-controlled room, and can only be seen by viewing her reflection in a strategically-placed mirror. Fortunately, using forensic technologies, researchers were able to create a life-sized replica of her body. It is possible the Lady of Cao was even used as a human sacrifice.
Saint Nicholas
Saint Nicholas lived at some point during the fourth century, and it is believed that he was once the Bishop of Myre. Although nothing was written about him while he was still alive, Saint Nicholas has become the patron saint of Russia, Greece, and Christmas. He helped to rescue numerous orphans and deterred several young women from becoming prostitutes.
Santa Claus
Due to his generosity, Saint Nicholas was transformed into the mythical character of Santa Claus. As for Saint Nicholas himself, he was buried in Myre until 1087 when his remains were stolen by a group of Italians. Later, the San Nicola basilica was enshrined and his body remains there to this day.
Giovanni Battista Sidotti
Giovanni Battista Sidotti was an Italian missionary and secular priest who traveled all the way to Japan to spread the word of God during a time when missionaries were punished for proselytizing. Sidotti attempted to disguise himself as a Samurai, but he was found out and immediately captured. Put under house arrest, Sidotti attempted and failed to convert his guards to Christianity and later died in at age 46 in an underground cell.
Sidotti's Remains
Sidotti's remains were discovered during the excavation of the Christian compound in 2014. Compared to other historical figures, forensic scientists were surprised by the ease with which they were able to construct the face of this legendary missionary. The project cost two million Yen to complete.
Mycenean “Griffin Warrior”
In 2015, a male skeleton was unearthed in a tomb, which has since been heralded as "the most important tomb to have been discovered in 65 years in continental Greece." The 3,500-year-old Mycenaean "Griffin Warrior" was found in Pylos; the grave was filled with over 1,400 precious objects.
Standing Tall
Forensic scientists believed that the man, who was either an influential fighter or trader, stood at 5'2"—which was quite tall for the time. The Griffin Warrior was buried with a plethora of combs, leading them to the conclusion that he had a head of long, curly hair. A depiction on an ancient seal discovered inside the tomb aided in reconstructing his features.
Dante Alighieri
Dante Alighieri was one of the most iconic poets of his time. Dante's Divine Comedy or Comedìa has been regarded as the pre-eminent work in Italian literature and one of the greatest works of literature in the world. Although he died at the age of 56 in 1321, his poetry has survived centuries.
CGI Rendering
In portraits, Dante was often depicted as a stern-looking figure with a hooked nose. This CGI rendering was based on a number of measurements of Dante's skull from 1920; he was portrayed much more kindly, with a rounded jaw, larger eyes, and a soft expression.
Accidental Discovery
During preparation work in 2009, the remains of nearly 400 men, women, and children were discovered on the site of a long-forgotten part of South Leith Parish Church's graveyard. The remains dated as far back as the 14th century.
Medieval Woman
The remains included those of a woman aged between 25 and 25 who died between 1393 and 1445, possibly from the plague or a different infectious disease. She stood only 4'11" tall—1.5" shorter than the average height for the time—and was buried in one of three communal graves, alongside two other women and a child between the ages of seven and 12.
Beachy Head Lady
AAs part of the Eastbourne Ancestors project, 300 sets of human remains were exhumed from Anglo-Saxon cemeteries and reexamined. The Beachy Head Lady was an ancient skeleton unearthed in Beachy Head, East Sussex, England. Her remains were found inside of two boxes labelled "Beachy Head, something to do with 1956 or 1959." She lived during the Roman period and to was believed to have originated from Sub-Saharan Africa.
Created from Remains
Using the skeletal remains, forensic scientists were able to reconstruct her features. Her teeth and bones were in excellent condition. It is posited that she was either born in Africa and brought to England at a young age, but Heritage Officer Jo Seaman said that "it's just as likely that she was born here." She was publicly exhibited for the first time at the Eastbourne Museum.
Stonehenge Man
The Stonehenge Man has been reconstructed from a skeleton found at Stonehenge dated over 5,500 years old. The skeleton was discovered in an elaborate tomb in 1863, offering a rare example of the anatomy of Neolithites. His face was brought to life by Swedish sculptor Oscar Nilsson.
Bearded Man
Nilsson used information from bone and tooth analyses to determine the man's facial definition. He was between 25 and 40 years old at his time of death; the man was muscular, as indicated by ridges on his skull and had highly-masculine features, like a chiseled chin and jawbone. "I had to give him a beard," Nilsson said. "There were no razors then.
Gristhorpe Man
In 1834, the remains of the Gristhorpe man were found buried in a coffin in Gristhorpe, North Yorkshire, England. They have since been identified as having belonged to a Bronze Age warrior chieftain. He was wrapped in animal skin at the time of the burial. The man was a high-status individual, judging by his height, which was six feet tall.
Facial Reconstruction
Dr. Alan Ogden, an osteologist at Bradford University, not only completed a digital reconstruction of the Gristhorpe Man's face, but also made him "talk" using computer software. Researchers found that the Gristhorpe Man may have died from a brain tumor, which was found growing on the left side of his skull.